information about increased risk for dependence, thus, providers could target treatments to particular symptoms to more effectively treat both disorders. If coping or affect regulation are motives for substance dependence among trauma-exposed patients, therapists could help patients identify and utilize other, more functional strategies to cope with these emotions. Finally, the results suggest the need to understand mechanisms at different levels (from the societal to the cellular) that lead to increases in substance dependence among those who are trauma-exposed, whether they develop PTSD or not, to guide effective treatment and prevention strategies.
