Addiction to drugs of abuse follows a recurring cycle, with each of the three stages being driven by a major neurobiological circuit: basal ganglia (including ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens) for the binge/intoxication stage; extended amygdala and habenula for the withdrawal/negative affect stage; and prefrontal cortex (PFC), insula, and allocortex for the preoccupation/anticipation (craving) stage [3]. This framework has expanded as knowledge of the complex neurocircuitry of addiction has evolved [3, 4].
