There are several different methods that can be used to administer ethanol during pregnancy. In invertebrates and simple vertebrates (C. elegans, Xenopus, zebrafish), alcohol exposure is usually by bath application (see Simple Systems). In more complex models such as those using rodents and primates, there are three major methods of ethanol administration employed: ingestion (through diet, water, or intubation), injection, or inhalation [for additional reviews see Ref. (25, 81, 82)].
