Approximately 90% of people who are incarcerated will return to communities and families located primarily in poor urban and rural areas. Each year, 600,000 adult offenders and 100,000 juvenile offenders return to these communities and families, and approximately 50% of the returnees are African American (Travis, 2005). Urban substance users’ risk of incarceration will be exacerbated by neighborhood physical and social disorder hazards like public consumption of alcohol, selling drugs, loitering, and crime or violence (Whitaker et al., 2011). Risk factors related to neighborhood disadvantage will lead to 60–70% of disparities in criminal justice and recidivism (Sampson et al., 2005; Chauhan et al., 2009).
