or logistic (AUD) regression models in R v3.6.3. In UK Biobank, we included sex, age at first assessment, Townsend Deprivation Index score (30) and the first 10 ancestry principal components as covariates. In COGA, we included age, sex, array type, income, and the first 10 ancestry principal components as fixed effect covariates, with family identity included as a random effect (i.e., allowing the intercept to vary by family).