Both a family history of alcoholism and prenatal exposure to alcohol, cigarettes, and other drugs of abuse are associated with an increased risk of drug and alcohol problems in adolescence and adulthood (Baer et al., 1998, Baer et al., 2003, Hill et al., 2008, Hill et al., 2011). However, disentangling the impact of these two factors on the etiology of substance use disorders has proved challenging because (1) maternal substance use during pregnancy frequently co-occurs with disadvantaged prenatal care, lower socioeconomic status and familial risk for alcohol dependence or substance use disorders (Wendell, 2013), and (2) mothers with substance use disorders may be more likely to use substances while pregnant (Smith et al., 1987, Hill et al., 2000).
