Alcoholics also have been found to perform below normal on tests that evaluate memory typologies or processes such as episodic memory (Le Berre et al., 2010) and free and delayed recall (Pitel et al., 2007; Noël et al., 2012). The tests of episodic memory used by Le Berre et al. (2010) examined free recall, semantic cued recall, and recognition memory for shallow and deeply encoded words; total recall and recognition scores were below those of the controls. Similarly, Pitel et al. (2007) employed a variety of episodic memory tests and found impairments in several components, including encoding and retrieval processes, contextual memory, autonoetic consciousness (the ability to analyze our own thoughts), and learning abilities. Noël et al. (2012) also detected impairments in episodic memory using the California Verbal Learning Test, and suggested that this defect likely reflected executive dysfunction. That is, rather than a retrieval deficit, alcoholics might have difficulties applying strategies in organizing information for later use. Kopera et al. (2012) studied alcoholic patients who presented with deficits in visual episodic memory, and observed that nonverbal domains such as attention, visual memory, and working memory were impaired.
