Research also reveals that pathogenic factors linked to race continue to affect health even when socioeconomic status (SES) is controlled. In national data there are residual racial differences in health at every level of SES for multiple indicators of health status, including self-rated health, heart disease mortality, hypertension and obesity (Pamuk et al. 1998). This pattern exists for a broad range of other outcomes. A striking example comes from national data on infant mortality by mothers’ education for all women age 20 years and older. African American women with a college degree or more education have a higher rate of infant mortality than white, Hispanic (or Latino), and Asian and Pacific Islander women who have not completed high school (Pamuk et al. 1998). Further evidence of the markedly elevated disease risk for African Americans comes from national data on chronic disease risk factors for blacks, whites and Hispanics age 40 and over (Crimmins et al. 2007). This study assessed indicators of blood pressure risk (systolic, diastolic, and pulse rate), inflammation risk (C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, albumin) and metabolic risk (total cholesterol,
