The sample included 663 patients age ≥18 years recruited from an inpatient community psychiatric hospital treating co-occurring substance and psychiatric disorders (N = 349), a methadone clinic (N = 270) and an outpatient counseling program (N = 44). To be eligible, patients must have used alcohol, cocaine or heroin within the prior 30 days (or the 30 days prior to admission, if inpatient), and to have completed detoxification if necessary. At each treatment site, clinical staff identified eligible, sequentially admitted patients and obtained their agreement to meet with research staff, who explained the study. Respondents who gave consent then participated in a baseline interview. The research protocol, including informed consent procedures, was approved by the Institutional Review Board of New York State Psychiatric Institute. Study procedures were described previously (Aharonovich et al., 2002, 2005; Hasin et al., 2002; Nunes et al., 2006). For the present study, patients were considered current users of alcohol (N = 534), cannabis (N = 340), cocaine (N = 483) or heroin (N = 364) if they used the substance during the prior 12 months. Patients’
