Risk factors for incarceration include prior incarceration, younger age, male gender, racial-ethnic minority groups (African Americans and Hispanics), and modifiable risk factors like co-occurring SUDs, lack of Medicaid insurance, untreated schizophrenia, and being homeless. Men with incarceration history may be more prone to violence, as incarceration leads to risk factors such as unemployment, economic stress, substance abuse, marital conflicts, victimization, and low academic achievement (Freudenberg, 2001; Pettit and Western, 2004; Smith, 2008; Washburn et al., 2008). Drug dealing appears to be a significant risk factor for developing SUD particularly in African American adolescent males (Centers and Weist, 1998). Racism and discrimination, language barriers, and dealing with social service agencies have also been associated with SUDs within minority populations (Finn, 1994).
