In conclusion, chronic cigarette smoking appears to be associated with demonstrable abnormalities in brain neurobiology and neurocognition in cross-sectional research across the lifespan, and is related to abnormal rates of brain volume loss in the elderly. However, the mechanisms promoting these abnormalities have yet to be explicated in humans. To better understand the factors associated with the reported neurocognitive and neurobiological abnormalities, longitudinal research combining comprehensive neurocognitive assessment with neuroimaging of brain metabolites, microstructure, macroscopic morphology, brain function and genetic vulnerabilities are necessary. Such longitudinal studies are required to inform the development of more effective pharmacological and behavioral interventions to reduce the ever-increasing worldwide mortality and morbidity associated with the modifiable health risk that is chronic cigarette smoking.
