Executive functioning is the ability to use appropriate problem solving in goal-directed behaviors, and includes behaviors such as response inhibition, working memory, and set shifting. These functions have long been thought to be dependent on frontal lobe structures [see Ref. (222) for review] such as the prefrontal cortex, though some argue that extra-frontal-lobe structures may also be involved [see Ref. (223) for review]. In human beings, these behaviors can easily be measured through standardized tests, and they appear to be gravely impacted by prenatal alcohol use [see Ref. (224) for a review]. Children with FASD have difficulties inhibiting responses on the Stroop test (225), a task where an individual must inhibit the natural tendency to read words, being required instead to state the color of the font. In addition, these individuals have difficulty in suppressing saccade responses in visual tasks while waiting for the proper initiating signal (211) and exhibit poor working memory when asked to recall digit spans backwards (226). On the Wisconsin card sorting task, where the subject must detect, use, and change card sorting strategies, individuals with
