Cloninger (e.g., Cloninger et al. 1993) has proposed a model of personality that includes four temperament and three character dimensions. The temperament dimensions include novelty seeking (an appetitive/approach system), harm avoidance (an inhibition/avoidance system), reward dependency (a system that is responsive to signals of social approval and attachment), and persistence. The character dimensions are self-directedness (responsible, goal-directed), cooperativeness (helpful, empathic versus hostile and alienated), and self-transcendence (imaginative, unconventional). Harm avoidance is conceptually and empirically associated with BIS, and novelty seeking and persistence are associated with BAS. Similarly, harm avoidance is positively correlated with N/NE and negatively associated with E/PE, self-directedness is negatively correlated with N/NE, and novelty seeking and persistence are associated with E/PE (e.g., de Fruyt et al. 2000).
