Stress also leads to release of noradrenaline from brainstem nuclei, most importantly the locus coeruleus. The result is increased noradrenergic stimulation of numerous forebrain areas implicated in emotional behaviour, such as the amygdala, the nucleus accumbens, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the hippocampus (see below). Unchecked, chronic hyper-responsiveness of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system is associated with anxiety disorders and cardiovascular problems, and blockade of β-adrenergic receptors in the amygdala can oppose the development of aversive memories in animals and humans31,32. This suggests that reduced responsiveness of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system could promote resilience.
