have been linked to alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease (Pastor et al. 2000; Powell et al. 2000; Pastor et al. 2005). Alleles of IL-10 have also been linked to alcoholism (Pastor et al. 2000). Interestingly, in both cases alleles associated with alcoholism increase pro-inflammatory responses, e.g. alleles associated with alcoholism increase pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα and decrease anti-inflammatory IL-10 secretion. Similarly polymorphisms, to the Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and multiple other alleles of the IL-1 gene complex are associated with risk for alcoholism (Saiz et al. 2009). Thus, gene polymorphisms that alter innate immune NF-κB and NF-κB target gene expression are associated with genetic risk for human alcoholism consistent with increased brain innate immune gene expression contributing to the neurobiology of addiction.
