With respect to gene-environment correlation, candidate genes have been linked to a number of seemingly environmental outcomes relevant for personality development including parent, romantic, and peer relationships (Burt, 2008; Dick et al., 2006; Lucht et al., 2006). Similarly, twin and family studies have consistently found that environments are heritable (Avinun & Knafo, 2013; Kendler & Baker, 2007; Klahr & Burt, 2013; Riemann, Kandler, & Bleidorn, 2012; Sturaro, Denissen, van Aken, & Asendorpf, 2008; Saudino & Plomin, 1997). This result means that family members who are more genetically similar are more likely to experience similar environments. As Plomin, Reiss, Hetherington, and Howe (1994, p. 32) have commented, such results seem counterintuitive, because “environments have no DNA and thus cannot show genetic effects.” However, a viable explanation for this seemingly counterintuitive result is that genes influence individual dispositions toward engaging with different sorts of environments. For example, McAdams, Gregory, and Eley (2013) found that the genetic influences on exposure to negative life events and parenting could be accounted for by the genetic influences on personality characteristics.
