There has been a steady rise in both prescription and non-prescription opioid use over the last decade that has resulted in rampant substance abuse among adult populations [1, 2]. Opioids belong to a class of highly addictive narcotics used for pain management, and their abuse often leads to the development of tolerance, dependence, and overdose. Methadone, codeine, hydrocodone (Vicodin, Lortab), oxycodone, propoxyphene (Darvon), fentanyl (Duragesic, Actiq, Oralet), tramadol (Ultram), hydromorphone (Dilaudid), morphine (MS-Contin and others), and levorphanol (Levo-Dromoran) are among the most commonly prescribed opioids [1, 2]. They are used for pain management in a number of acute and chronic medical conditions including chronic non-cancer pain [3], post-surgical care [4, 5], and musculoskeletal pain [6]. In addition, they are also prescribed for non-pain conditions such as multiple sclerosis [7, 8]. Opiates are naturally derived substances that have a physiological effect on humans, the class of opioids specifically refers to natural, semi-synthetic, and synthetic chemicals which confer anti-nociception effects by acting at opioid receptors in the central nervous system [9].
