maladaptive behaviors [186–188,192–194]. However, the actual mechanisms promoting the neurocognitive and neurobiological abnormalities reported in chronic smokers are unclear and premorbid variables(e.g., genetic vulnerabilities) must also be considered as potential contributing factor. More specifically, the neurobiological and neurocognitive abnormalities reported in the reviewed studies may represent premorbid risk factors for the development and maintenance of nicotine dependence and/or premorbid vulnerabilities that were compounded by the effects of chronic smoking. Additionally, as many studies of the neurocognitive consequences of chronic smoking were conducted with older adults, the reported findings may be influenced by a survivor effect [43].
