Violence was based on official convictions and self and parent reports of violent offending, including robbery or using strongarm methods, attacking to hurt or kill, forced sex, or gang fighting. Violent offending was coded 1 at each age in which the boy, his caretaker, or police records indicated that he had engaged in violence. In adolescence, violence was the number of years that the youth committed any violent offense from ages 12 to 17, ranging from 0 to 6 (M = 0.82, SD = 1.25). At age 24/25 it was coded 1 for any violent offense in the last year (5%) and 0 for none.
