Several studies have looked at developmental trajectories for externalizing disorders using the Child Development Project, a longitudinal study of a community-based sample from age 5 to early-adulthood. These studies found a moderating effect of perceived parental monitoring at age 11 and age 14, respectively, on the association of GABRA2 and CHRM2 (encoding the cholinergic muscarinic 2 receptor) with externalizing trajectories [91, 92]. The genetic risk was manifest in a low parental monitoring environment that in and of itself may be a proxy for childhood stressors.
