It is generally accepted that the United States’ relative oversupply of prescription opioids during the past 20 years has played a significant causal role in the current U.S. opioid epidemic (1, 2). The number of opioid prescriptions in the United States quadrupled from 1999 to 2008, paralleling the rise in opioid-related deaths during this period (3). As awareness of the potential danger of prescription opioids grew, multiple interventions were implemented to combat opioid overprescribing and misuse. For example, prior to 2002, 17 states had prescription drug monitoring programs (PMDPs); since 2002, an additional 32 states implemented PMDPs (4). In addition, an increasing number of states issued opioid prescribing guidelines (e.g., (5)) and placed restrictions on pain management clinics (6). Finally, an abuse-deterrent formulation of Oxycontin was introduced in 2010 (7).
