Evidence suggests that smokers with greater nicotine dependence self-report worse withdrawal symptoms, including negative affect, compared to less dependent smokers. Heavier smokers have greater withdrawal symptoms than lighter smokers (Killen, Fortmann, Telch, & Newman, 1988) and regular smokers report greater negative affect and craving during withdrawal than less dependent “chippers” (Shiffman, 1989; Shiffman, Paty, Kassel, Gnys, & Zettler-Segal, 1994). However, the assumption that greater nicotine dependence produces higher levels of negative affect during withdrawal has not consistently been supported, as other studies have found little relationship between nicotine dependence and withdrawal symptoms (Gritz, Carr, & Marcus, 1991; Pomerleau et al., 2005).
