Other studies have considered the influences of parent gender or the concordance of parent and offspring gender. A large population-based study noted that maternal, compared to paternal, alcoholism is associated with significantly higher occurrences of nearly all the negative psychosocial outcomes measured (Christoffersen and Soothill, 2003). Smaller studies in adolescents and young adults suggest that female offspring of individuals with alcoholism are more likely to have internalizing symptoms or disorders than are male offspring (Berkowitz and Perkins, 1988; Chassin et al., 1999) and that the risk may be greater when the parent with alcoholism is male (Berkowitz and Perkins, 1988). Another population-based study (Dawson and Grant, 1998) found an interaction between offspring gender and gender of the parent with alcoholism (and same-gender relatives on that side) in alcohol dependence in the offspring. In particular, the influence of alcoholism in maternal female relatives on alcohol dependence alone was greater in women than in men, and the influence of alcoholism in paternal male relatives on primary alcohol dependence with secondary depression was greater in men than in women.
