The excretion of intact alcohol through sweat and transdermal diffusion provides another source to estimate BAC using transdermal alcohol concentration (TAC). However, this method faces significant challenges, as TAC is delayed relative to BAC and varies widely due to individual population differences in sweat gland density, sweat production, and other physiological factors (155). Nonetheless, the development of non-invasive, precise, and durable alcohol biosensors is a promising step forward in health monitoring and precision medicine (155). These tools align with ongoing efforts in pharmacokinetic modeling to better predict BAC curves ─ the focus of the next section.
