Moffitt (1993) suggested that nonpassive gene-environment correlation plays a role in the etiology of antisocial behavior, noting that “Children’s predispositions may evoke exacerbating responses from the environment” (p. 682). Similarly, several theories of the etiology of maltreatment posit that certain qualities of children, such as age, health, disruptive behaviors, prematurity, developmental difficulties, and retardation, influence the probability that caregivers will maltreatment them (Belsky 1993; Steele 1980; Vasta 1982). Empirical research supports this proposition. In a laboratory study, mothers reacted more negatively to unrelated conduct disordered boys than to unrelated non-conduct disordered boys, suggesting that children’s conduct problems influence how mothers treat them (Anderson et al. 1986). Similarly, adoption studies showed that compared to adoptees without elevated genetic vulnerability to conduct problems, adoptees with elevated genetic vulnerability (i.e., an antisocial biological parent) evoked more harsh and inconsistent discipline and less nurturing and involved parenting (Ge et al. 1996) and more negative control (i.e. guilt induction, hostility, and withdrawal from relationship; O’Connor et al. 1998).
