Interactions between genes and environment (G × E) are likely to influence the risk – resilience balance for pathological behavior (Moffitt et al, 2005). Earlier longitudinal G × E studies have shown that severe maltreatment (Caspi et al, 2002; Kim-Cohen et al, 2006; Widom and Brzustowicz, 2006) and family adversity (Foley et al, 2004) experienced by young children interact with the MAOA-LPR low activity variant to predict childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior. A similar G × E interaction has been demonstrated in rhesus macaque monkeys (Newman et al, 2005). However studies using retrospective childhood adversity questionnaires have had mixed results (Ducci et al, 2008; Haberstick et al, 2005; Prichard et al, 2008; Prom-Wormley et al, 2009; Sjoberg et al, 2007; Young et al, 2006).
