After 1883 the Federal government took over the entire responsibility for AI education and established off-reservation boarding schools, the objectives of which were to instill a work ethic, individualism, and other tenets of American ‘civilization’ and to suppress all that was Indian. Children were forcibly removed and sent to these schools where it was forbidden to speak a native language or make reference to native religion or any cultural folk practice. The Carlisle Indian School with its approach “Kill the Indian: Save the Man” through forced assimilation became the model for the 26 Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools in 15 states and territories. By 1930 nearly half of all AI/AN children enrolled in schools were in off-reservation boarding schools.31 Reports of child abuse and neglect at the schools were common.32 It was not until 1978 that the Indian Child Welfare Act allowed AI/AN tribes and AI/AN parents to determine where their children would go to school. Increased psychopathology, including alcohol/drug use and suicidal behavior has been associated with boarding school attendance, and children of boarding school attendees also have
