If ignored, gender-differentiated GxE effects can increase the likelihood of null findings and obscure complex interactions between genetic predisposition and gendered experiences, motivations, and expectations. Consequently, Shanahan and Hofer (2005) argue for more complex models that go beyond the interaction of genotype and only one indicator of the social environment. Despite evidence of gender differences in mechanisms of affect regulation and disinhibition in alcohol dependence, existing studies have rarely examined gender-specific gene–environment interactions involved in these etiological pathways. Frequently, studies have been statistically underpowered to support complex interaction models (Patsopoulos et al. 2007). However, even when gender differences in genetic effects were examined, inappropriate methods were often used (Brookes et al. 2004).
