In humans, cue-induced craving appears to involve activation of similar circuits, in which cues that are associated with drugs and elements of non-drug addictions produce activation of the prefrontal cortex, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, and medial orbitofrontal cortex.101–105 Imaging studies have also revealed that cues associated with cocaine craving increase dopamine release in the striatum, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex (anterior cingulate and medial orbitofrontal cortex) and opioid peptides in the anterior cingulate and frontal cortex.9,31,106,107 Indeed, imaging studies have revealed baseline decreases in orbitofrontal (medial and lateral) and anterior cingulate (ventral and dorsal) function and dopamine function during dependence, but reactivation of dopamine and reward system function during acute craving episodes.108
