Winzer-Serhan, 2012; Cornelius & Day, 2009; Knopik, 2009). Cognitive function has also been shown to be negatively affected by maternal smoking during pregnancy, with deficits in sustained attention (Fried, O’Connell, & Watkinson, 1992; Fried, Watkinson, & Gray, 1992), response inhibition, memory, and impulsivity, overall cognitive function, receptive language (Fried, O’Connell, et al., 1992), verbal learning and design memory (Cornelius, Ryan, Day, Goldschmidt, & Willford, 2001), problem solving (Cornelius, et al., 2001), speech and language (Makin, Fried, & Watkinson, 1991), school performance (Lambe, Hultman, Torrang, Maccabe, & Cnattingius, 2006), and auditory processing (McCartney, Fried, & Watkinson, 1994). Dose–response relationships, in which the smoking-related relative risk increases with amount smoked, have also been reported for general cognitive ability (Sexton, Fox, & Hebel, 1990), arithmetic, and spelling (Batstra, Hadders-Algra, & Neeleman, 2003), suggesting the presence of vulnerable periods during fetal development (Ernst, Moolchan, & Robinson, 2001).
