Social use of individual genetic information is fraught with ethical and political problems. African-Americans have been particularly sensitized to issues of genetic stigma since restrictive regulations have been applied to (mostly African-American) carriers of sickle cell trait (HbS).57,58 More generally, screening for the XYY karyotype was carried out among newborns in Boston (1968–1975), following data indicating an association between XYY and antisocial personality disorder. The program was stopped because of justifiable concern regarding stigmatization and inadequate consent procedures.59
