in this age range, gender differences in rates of cigarette smoking remain small. Although these cross-sectional data do not address developmental issues, they are consistent with one of the few longitudinal studies of substance use in adolescence and young adulthood, which also shows that substance related problems in males escalate in young adulthood at a greater rate than in females (Hicks et al., 2007). Based on these data, we anticipated only modest gender differences in our Wave 1 adolescent data, and that these differences would expand in our Wave 2 young adult data, particularly for alcohol and marijuana.
