mid-adolescence, peaking between 14 and 16, and then declining. In contrast, impulse control, as indexed by self report and unhurried decision-making during the Tower of London task (Steinberg et al., 2008); anticipation of future consequences, as indicated by self report (Steinberg et al., 2009), strategic planning, as indexed by self report (Steinberg et al., 2009) and Tower of London performance (Albert, et al., 2009); and resistance to peer influence as indexed by self-report (Steinberg & Monahan, 2007) and experimentally manipulated exposure to peers (Gardner & Steinberg, 2005), all increase linearly from preadolescence through late adolescence and, in some respects, early adulthood. Moreover, and as predicted within this model, individuals' preference for risky activity – the extent to which they believe that the benefits of risk-taking outweigh the costs – is higher during mid-adolescence than before or after and predicted independently and jointly by measures of reward-seeking and self-regulation (Steinberg, 2009).
