Children with early-starting conduct problems exhibit elevated risk for persistent externalizing psychopathology in adulthood, including antisocial personality, alcohol, and substance use disorders (Moffitt, 1993; Dodge & McCourt, 2010; Jaffee, Strait, & Odgers, 2012). In turn, externalizing psychopathology leads to poor individual outcomes and substantial public costs. Substance abuse alone is estimated to account for over $600 billion a year in increased costs to health, criminal justice, and government service systems (Rehm et al., 2009; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009; National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2012). Such costs underscore the critical need to intervene early and effectively with conduct-disordered children.
