In cross-sectional population-based studies with community-dwelling older adults, where smoking status (i.e., current smoker, past smoker, never smoker) was used as a prospective or retrospective predictor, current smoking [44–46] and any history of smoking [47] were associated with poorer performances on measures of global cognitive function. Any previous smoking history (with variable lengths of smoking cessation) was associated with poorer cognitive flexibility [45], and impaired general cognitive function [44] or, conversely, decreased risk of global cognitive impairment [46]. Chronic smoking in older adults has also been associated with a diminished ability to execute some activities of daily living [48] and compromised postural stability [49].
