The findings in this study suggest not only that temperamental regulation/control and negative emotionality are associated with subclinical and clinical maladjustment but also that temperamentally based characteristics can change, and such change may be an important correlate or cause of change in maladjustment. Because temperamental differences are evident before differences in maladjustment, it is likely that temperament contributes more to maladjustment than vice versa, although the effects are probably bidirectional. Socialization and other environmental factors (e.g., familial risk) that have been linked to temperament (e.g., Eisenberg, Zhou, et al., 2005; Evans & English, 2002; Lengua, Honorado, & Bush, 2007) may mediate their association with maladjustment, although over time. However, because initial change groups differed somewhat in their mean levels of maladjustment and temperament at T1, causal relations are unclear. Complex models in which environmental influences, genetics, temperament, and maladjustment are included are needed to sort out the directions of effects.
