Regarding the covariates, male gender was associated negatively with alcohol use (β = −.21, p < .05) and adverse consequences (β = −.16, p < .05) at age 16 and positively with alcohol use at age 18 (β = .20, p < .05), which reflects the distribution of alcohol involvement over time across gender groups in this sample. Parent educational attainment was associated positively with subjective well-being at age 16 (β = .16, p < .05). Early alcohol use was a positive predictor of alcohol use (β = .25, p < .05) and adverse consequences (β = .24, p < .05) at age 16 and problem alcohol use at age 21 (β = .21, p < .05). Similarly, early conduct problems were associated positively with alcohol use at age 16 (β = .17, p < .05) and alcohol problems at age 21 (β = .14, p < .05). Interestingly, early depressed mood was associated negatively with alcohol use at age 16 (β = −.24, p < .05), but predicted increased alcohol use from age 16 to age 18 (β =
