The specific functions of other miRNAs upregulated in human alcoholics, which have also been implicated in immune signaling, remain unknown. Among these are miR-140 and miR-194, both upregulated in in vivo studies in mouse lung after LPS exposure (Moschos et al., 2007); miR-92, which is upregulated in CD4+CD8+ double positive thymocytes in comparison to other stages of T lymphocyte development (Sonkoly et al., 2008); miR-15b, which is upregulated in CD8+ cells when compared with CD4+ T cells or double positive thymocytes (Sonkoly et al., 2008); and miR-196, which have sequence-predicted targets within the hepatitis C virus genomic RNA and is upregulated by antiviral cytokine INFβ (Sonkoly et al., 2008). This highlights the fact that we are just starting to understand the regulatory roles of miRNAs in general. Often, a single miRNA is found to be involved in multiple cellular functions. For example, (1) miR-92a and cluster member miR-18a block angiogenesis when overexpressed in endothelial cells (Bonauer et al., 2009; Doebele et al., 2010), (2) increased miR-92a in plasma levels in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a good biomarker
