However, craving can be experienced during conditions of positive affect. Baker and colleagues (Baker et al., 1987) theorized that, in the absence of withdrawal and limitation in drug access, craving can occur in dependent users during drug use and during conditions of positive affect and cue exposure. For example, there is evidence that some drug-dependent individuals report greater craving during or immediately after drug use compared to during drug deprivation, presumably when the drug’s hedonic effects are at their greatest (Meyer, 1988). Anticipation or availability of a drug use opportunity can increase both craving and positive affect in dependent users (Carter & Tiffany, 2001; Zinser, Fiore, Davidson, & Baker, 1999). Despite eliciting craving, smoking cues themselves have generally been found to evoke self-report ratings of positive affect compared to neutral cues (Muñoz et al., 2010). Psychophysiological assessment of the motivational significance of smoking cues has been mixed, with some studies finding them to produce acoustic startle response magnitudes similar to pleasant cues (Cinciripini et al., 2006; Geier, Mucha, & Pauli, 2000), suggesting an activation of appetitive motivation, while other studies suggest the opposite (Muñoz et al., 2010; Orain-Pelissolo, Grillon, Perez-Diaz, & Jouvent, 2004).
