nontreatment seeking smokers, craving to smoke was the strongest predictor of subsequent smoking, while little relationship was found between mood and smoking (Shiffman, Paty, Gwaltney, & Dang, 2004). In another study comparing chippers (light, nonaddicted smokers) to heavy smokers, only chippers’ smoking was predicted by negative affect (Shiffman & Paty, 2006). Given the prominence of negative affect in theoretical models of nicotine dependence, these results from real-time assessments are perplexing. In the case of the EMA studies previously cited, perhaps the right questions were asked, but were not asked at a critical time.
