sample was 61 percent male, 47 percent European-American, 51 percent African-American, and 2 percent of other ethnicity. Mean age was 6.58 years (SD = 0.48) at enrollment in the first grade. During the elementary school phase (grades 1 to 5), intervention included a universal classroom-based implementation of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) curriculum (Kusche & Greenberg, 1994), and opportunities to participate in 2-hour extracurricular “enrichment programs” consisting of child social skills training, parent training and support groups, guided parent-child interaction, and academic tutoring. Enrichment programs were held weekly during grade 1, biweekly during grade 2, and monthly during grades 3 through 5. In addition, paraprofessional tutors provided three additional 30-minute sessions per week in reading and peer-pairing to improve friendships with classmates. Families were offered home visits every other week to promote positive parenting behavior and parental problem solving skills. After grade 1, criterion-referenced assessments adjusted the prescribed dosage to match need. During grades 5 and 6, children received a middle school transition program and four parent-youth group intervention sessions on topics of adolescent development; alcohol, tobacco, and drugs; and decision making. In grades 7 and 8, eight Youth Forums (Oyserman, 2000) addressed vocational opportunities, life skills, and summer
