Chunk #14 — 1 Definitions and Conceptual Framework for Reward Deficit in Alcoholism — 1.1 Theoretical Framework: Motivation, Withdrawal, and Opponent Process
Thus, dependence or manifestation of a withdrawal syndrome after removal of chronic drug administration is defined in terms of motivational aspects of dependence, such as emergence of a negative emotional state (e.g., dysphoria, anxiety and irritability) when access to the drug is prevented (Koob and Le Moal 2001), rather than on the physical, signs of dependence. Indeed, some have argued that the development of such a negative affective state can define dependence as it relates to addiction: The notion of dependence on a drug, object, role, activity or any other stimulus-source requires the crucial feature of negative affect experienced in its absence. The degree of dependence can be equated with the amount of this negative affect, which may range from mild discomfort to extreme distress, or it may be equated with the amount of difficulty or effort required to do without the drug, object, etc (Russell 1976).
