Gene x environment interaction (G × E) occurs when the effect of the environmental exposure on an outcome is modified by genotype (for review see Ref.39). Stressors occurring early in life, such as childhood adversity, are well known risk factors for addiction and comorbid conditions, including antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), CD, borderline personality disorder, and anxiety disorders. However, not all people exposed to early trauma develop psychopathology, indicating differences in resiliency. Functional loci that contribute to interindividual differences in stress resiliency include monoamine oxidase A (MAOA),40 the serotonin transporter (SLC6A4),41 COMT,42 the corticotrophin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene, neuropeptide Y,43 FKBP5, 44 the glucocorti coid receptor (GR) gene (NR3C1),45 and the adenylate cyclase activating poly peptide 1 (pituitary) receptor type gene (ADCYAP1R1).46
