Sample number (n) indicates the number of independent biological samples in each experiment. Sample numbers and experimental repeats are indicated in figure legends or Methods. Normality of data distribution was tested using the D’Agostino–Pearson omnibus normality test and variance was estimated before deciding on a statistical test. Unless otherwise stated in the figure legend, data are shown as the mean ± s.e.m. and the two-sided nonparametric Mann–Whitney test was used to assess statistical significance. Analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism.