For both males and females, the model constraining the mean scores for behavior problems to be equal across urban and rural environments did not produce a significant decrease in goodness of fit (males: χ2Δ = 1.68, 1 df, p = 0.20; females: χ2Δ = 0, 1 df, p = 0.99). In males, constraining genetic, common environmental and unique environmental influences on behavior problems to be equal across urban and rural settings was not significant (χ2Δ = 7.21, 3 df, p = 0.07). However, for females, there was significant evidence of moderation between urban and rural settings (moderation of ACE: χ2Δ = 27.69, 3 df, p < 0.01). Moderation of each of the variance components was significant (moderation of A: χ2Δ = 3.92, 1 df, p = 0.05; moderation of C: χ2Δ = 4.97, 1 df, p = 0.03; moderation of E: χ2Δ = 18.41, 1 df, p < 0.01). Standardized estimates (with confidence intervals in parentheses) of genetic and environmental influences on behavior problems in urban and rural environments are presented in Table 2. Genetic influences were lower and common environmental influences higher, in rural settings.
