In summary, individuals in treatment for cocaine dependence have experienced a high level of violent traumatic events and many report a lifetime history of PTSD. The neighbors of cocaine dependent cases also have an elevated risk for experiencing traumatic events which in turn elevated their risk for PTSD. Experiencing multiple, violent traumas increases the risk of PTSD, regardless of cocaine dependence. The high prevalence of trauma seen in our community-based participants emphasizes the role of violence in the neighborhood and the connections among drug dependence, trauma exposure, and PTSD. Drug dependent individuals who return to the same communities with a high baseline rate of cocaine dependence and violence after treatment may be more likely to relapse, which perpetuates the cycle of violence and drugs. Further, drug dependence is not only problematic for the user, but may also increase the risk of trauma exposure in individuals who live in the same neighborhoods. Recognition of high rates of violence and assault experienced by individuals in treatment for cocaine dependence and members from their communities are needed to better inform health plans and
