Physical discipline was assessed using items from the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) (Straus, 1979). We used mothers’ reports of their own and their spouse’s behavior toward their child as it related to physical interactions/discipline. Six items were included in our measure of physical discipline: whether a parent 1) threw, smashed, hit, or kicked something; 2) threatened the child; 3) threw something at the child; 4) pushed, grabbed, or shoved the child; 5) hit or tried to hit the child; and 6) hit or tried to hit the child with something. Each item was assessed for each of two age ranges (ages 1–4 and ages 4–5), and for both parents. “Risk” was inferred if the mother indicated that an item had occurred more than once per month, and 1 point was given each time this criterion was met, such that a target child could receive a score of 4 points per item if both parents had engaged in that behavior more than once per month during both age ranges. The highest possible score for “physical discipline” was 24, and the highest
