Third, the role of gender in substance use is critically important to understanding its etiology and consequences. While social norms regarding substance use are changing for women (Goodwin et al., 2009; Keyes et al., 2008a; Keyes et al., 2010b), drinking and other substance use remains less acceptable for women than for men (Ahern et al., 2008; Greenfield & Room, 1997; Jones-Webb, 1998; Keyes et al., 2011). Recent evidence indicates that Whites are more susceptible to influence from social norms regarding substance use compared with Blacks (Keyes et al., 2012b) and report more positive attitudes toward drinking (Caetano & Clark, 1999; D. Herd, 1997), suggesting that the intersection of race and gender in trajectories of substance use may shed light on potential emerging disparities. Recent evidence from cross-sectional data indicate, for example, that Black women have higher rates of alcohol-related problems relative to White women at equal levels of alcohol consumption (Witbrodt et al., 2014). In addition, Black men have higher rates of alcohol-related problems among those with low levels of heavy drinking (Witbrodt et al., 2014); higher rates of incident
