more intensely, and report greater satisfaction and reward from smoking following stress exposure in the human laboratory.14 Similar human laboratory studies have examined the effects of stress on cannabis and opioid craving and self-administration behavior, finding that cannabis is often used to cope with stress and negative life events20 and that stress exposure increases opioid craving in opioid-dependent individuals.21 It should not be surprising then that AUD/SUD and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are highly comorbid, and individuals with this comorbidity often have worse outcomes related to social and psychological problems and poorer treatment responses.22
