A critical related issue in both prevention and treatment of SUDs is that addiction cannot be measured directly before substance use onset, or during remission. Accordingly, it is important to develop measures of addiction propensity36 that could reflect genetic and/or environmental risk and that would predict the likelihood of abuse and dependence should initiation or relapse occur. In both human and animal studies, trait and state measures related to neurobiological systems involved in reward, punishment, motivation, stress response, impulsivity, externalizing and social behavior are useful in this regard37,38.
